Chinese Thought and Culture

mǎn zhāo sǔn, qiān shòu yì 满招损，谦受益 Complacency Leads to Failure; Modesty to Success. 骄傲自满会招致损害，谦虚谨慎会得到益处。“满”即自满、自负，自以为满足；“谦”即“敬”，由衷地恭顺谨慎。古人认为，一切都在不断的变化之中，优劣成败会转化；人要与时俱进，不断努力，不能满足于已经取得的成绩，裹足不前；要放低姿态，虚怀若谷，时时克服自身不足。小到一人，大到一国，皆如此。这与中华民族“自强不息”的精神息息相通。 Conceit and complacency cause failure whereas modesty and prudence bring success. Ancient Chinese believed that all things were in constant change, and advantages might turn into disadvantages, and vice versa. One should keep pace with the times, work hard and […]

lúnhuí 轮回 Saṃsāra / Rebirth / Reincarnation 一切众生在生死交替中如车轮转动不停。“轮回”思想假设灵魂不随肉体的坏灭而消灭，因而会在死生交替中反复受身，无有始终。在佛教产生之前的印度，轮回已是一种流行观念。由于轮回个体必须被动消受前世行为的后果，轮回被普遍认为是痛苦的。佛教思想的基本理路，就是将这种循环往复的生命过程理解为因果相续的序列，并且主张通过消灭原因可以达到消灭结果的目的，最终终止轮回，从其痛苦中解脱。 All beings ceaselessly move in the alternation of birth and death, like the turning of a wheel. The notion of the “turning of the wheel,” i.e., reincarnation, assumes that the soul does not follow the ruin and disappearance of the body. That is why it can ceaselessly

liànɡchū-zhìrù 量出制入 Spend-and-Tax / Expenditure Should Be Carefully Calculated Before Making a Plan to Gather Revenue. 测算支出，安排收入；预先估算国家每年需要的财政支出额度，按照所估算的支出额度确定财政收入的额度，并以此向百姓征收赋税。也说“量出为入”。这是中国人从汉代起便主张的财政原则，其中蕴含着财政预算概念的萌芽，颇得财政要领，为后世所推重。 A country must estimate its annual expenditure in advance, and, on this basis, determine the amount of revenue to be levied on the people. This is known as “spend-and-tax.” It is a fiscal principle followed by all rulers

lìshū 隶书 Clerical Script 汉字发展演变中的一种书体。亦称“隶字”“古书”。隶书由篆书简化演变而成，在笔画方面，它改篆书的圆转为方折；在结体方面，其字形多呈宽扁，横画长而竖画短，讲究“蚕头雁尾”“一波三折”。隶书相传为秦时小吏程邈所创，实际起源于战国，而程邈为这一书体的整理与定型起了至关重要的作用。与篆书相比，隶书的字形结构趋于简化，书写方式更为便捷。东汉时期普遍使用隶书，使这一书体的发展达到顶峰。魏晋时期也称隶书为“楷书”“正书”，实为似隶而体势多波磔的“八分”。 Clerical script is a variety of Chinese calligraphy during its evolution, also known as the “official script” or “ancient style of calligraphy.” It evolved from and was a simplification of seal script. In terms of execution of strokes, clerical script changed rounded turns to abrupt turns. Structurally, each character was

lì 利 Interests / Gain 利益，即对人与人群的生存、发展有利的各种因素。古人常以之与“义”对举。“利”分私利、公利。“私利”指个人、家庭或特定群体所谋求的利益，包括财货、声誉、权力、地位等因素。当私利与他者的利益发生冲突时，人们往往会以损害他者利益的方式来实现自身的利益。“公利”是全社会所享有的公共利益，主要指充足的人口、富足的财货、良好的社会秩序与道德教化。从不同角度、不同立场出发，中国古代各学派对“利”的诉求与态度表现出显著的差异。 Gain means all factors conducive to the survival and development of individuals and groups. The ancients often contrasted gain with righteousness. There is private and public gain. The former is related to individuals, their families or special groups, and consists of such things as goods, money, reputation, power and

lì zhǔnǎo 立主脑 Focus on What Is Central to a Drama 戏曲创作要围绕主要人物和主要事件展开。由明末清初曲论家李渔（1611—1680）提出。李渔认为，古人写文章，必有一篇之“主脑”。所谓主脑，是作者写作的缘由或文章的立意。一部戏曲，也必定围绕一个人、一件事而生发，这一个人、一件事就是戏曲的主脑，它推动戏剧情节和矛盾冲突的发展。这个“人”和“事”可以理解为戏曲的主角和关键事件。所谓关键事件是全剧所有事件中对矛盾冲突起枢纽作用、能够将全部情节串联起来的中心事件。他举例说，《西厢记》的主脑是张君瑞一人、白马将军解围一事，其余皆由此人和此事件引出。立主脑兼指立人、立事而言，很多人创作传奇，知道确立主角，却不知道确立关键事件，导致全本如同断线的珠子、没有栋梁的房屋。“立主脑”对于戏曲的结构非常重要。 The late Ming and early Qing drama theorist Li Yu (1611-1680) used this term to suggest that a drama should revolve around main characters and events. He said that when an ancient writer wrote an essay, he would always develop a main theme

lǐ cái zhèng cí 理财正辞 Manage Wealth Properly and Speak Correctly 调理财富，端正言辞。古人认为这是权力的两大基本职能。“理财”意为使财富的调配合理有序；“正辞”意为使官方的话语合乎礼法，进而使民众的言行也合乎礼法。财富分配合理了，言行合乎礼法了，整个国家和社会也就呈现良好的秩序和状态了。现代所谓物质文明建设和精神文明建设，与此不无契合之处。 This expression means to manage wealth properly and speak correctly. The ancient Chinese regarded these to be the two basic functions of power. “To manage wealth” means enabling wealth to be allocated in a reasonable and orderly manner; “to speak correctly” means making

lèimíng 类名 Classified Name 同类事物的名称。“类名”是墨家所使用的一种名称类别。墨家注重对名的辨别，强调以恰当的名来指称事物，以实现名实相合。墨家将所用之名分为三类，即“达名”“类名”“私名”。“类名”是指称同一类事物的名称，如“马”之名。“马”用以指称马这个属类之下的一切马。 “Classified name” is a category used in the Mohist School for naming the same kind of things. The Mohists stressed the importance of properly naming things in different ways to reflect their real nature. They had three ways to name things: unrestricted, classified, and private. “Classified name” refers to the

kǔ 苦 Duhkha / Suffering 烦恼痛苦。佛教的“苦”所涉甚广：既指具体事件中感受到的身心痛苦，也指喜乐衰坏之苦以及一切无常迁流之苦，合称“三苦”（即“苦苦”“坏苦”“行苦”）。对于“苦”的理解是实践佛教教义的出发点：只有认识到生命是苦，才决意了解分析苦的原因，而后通过有效的方法消除这些原因，从而远离烦恼乃至轮回，此即苦、集、道、灭“四谛”。 This term means the suffering from afflictions. The implications of “suffering” in Buddhism are very broad. Namely it refers to the physical and the mental pain experienced in specific events. It also refers to the suffering when joy fades, up to the suffering that all is impermanent and changing.

kōng 空 Śūnyatā / Emptiness 本义为缺失，指事物没有恒常不变的本质或事物虚妄不实。独立持存的本质，被称为“自性”（svabhāva）。佛教否认这种本质的存在，而认为一切世间现象都是因缘条件的聚散，“自性”仅仅是概念思维对现象世界的固化。“无自性”（nihsvabhāva），即“空”的观点在大乘佛教当中尤为突出，它彻底否定了任何名言所指的永真性，甚至包括佛教教义本身。 The basic meaning of this term is voidness. It denotes that things do not have a constant or unchanging essence. It also means that things are illusory, not real. The essence of something independently existing is called “own-being,” or “svabhāva.” Buddhism denies the existence of this kind of essence.