píngděng 平等 Equality 相同，没有差别。本是梵语sama的译词。作为佛教的基本观念，它最初是指各种姓之间没有差别，后来大乘佛教及中国化的佛教——禅宗等佛教派别认为一切法、一切众生之间在佛性与终极意义上没有差别。佛教的平等观有多种，其中影响最为普及深远的是“众生平等”（一切有情有识的生物无差别），一般被理解为人人平等。近代以降，它用以翻译西方的equality，主要指每个人作为社会主体在社会关系和社会生活中具有同等的地位、机会和权利。 As the Chinese translation of the Sanskrit word “sama,” pingdeng (平等) means the same level with no difference. As a fundamental concept of Buddhism, it originally meant that there was no difference between the various castes. Later on, in Mahayana Buddhism and Buddhism adapted to the Chinese conditions, such as Zen Buddhism, […]

pànjiào 判教 Classification of Teachings 指佛教各宗为了消除分歧、树立本派的正宗地位和权威而对佛教各类经典的意义和地位所进行的分类排序。也称“教判”。各宗派的判教不同，一般由低到高、由浅入深，将本宗的经典教义视为最高的教法。在印度佛教中已有运用，隋唐时期的各宗均有自己的判教，比如天台宗的“五时八教”，将佛陀传法分为五个时期，以华严为首，依次为阿含、方等、般若、法华涅槃；从教化方法上分为顿、渐、秘密、不定四类，从理论性质上分为藏、通、别、圆四类。这是一种带有强烈宗派意识的理论整合方法，对佛教在中国的本土化产生了深远影响。 The term refers to an exegetical classification in which a Buddhist school, in order to bridge theological differences of various teachings or establish its own position and authority, ranks the significance and status of various scriptures. It is also known as jiao pan (classification of the tenets). Different schools and

nièpán 涅槃 Nirvana 出离轮回的状态。涅槃的字面意思是熄灭，与烦恼炽盛相对，指达到觉悟、断灭一切烦恼生死的清净状态，是佛教修行的基本目标。涅槃又分有余、无余两种：有余涅槃指觉悟后，肉身仍因前世因缘持续未灭；无余涅槃指所有业力全部消耗殆尽，生身不复，彻底从轮回状态中解脱。大乘经典拓展了涅槃的观念，以现见实相为涅槃，主张涅槃与世间的相即关系。 This term refers to the state of having left samsara, the circle of rebirth. The literal meaning of nirvana is extinction or blowing off, in contrast to affliction, which is burning like fire. It refers to the attainment of a purified state where one attains enlightenment and eradicates affliction, birth, and

niánhào 年号 Reign Title 中国古代用来纪年的一种名号，也可用来表示年份。一般由君主发起。新帝王即位后，为了与上一任帝王相区别，都要改元（更改年号）以重新纪年。年号的真正确立始于汉武帝刘彻（前156—前87），他首创年号“建元”（前140—前135），此后形成制度。帝王在位期间如遇有祥瑞或重大事情，常更改年号。一个皇帝所用年号少则一个，多则十几个。人们把这记录年代的起始之年称作“纪元”，改换年号称作“改元”。1912年中华民国成立后，废除年号，改用民国纪年。1949年中华人民共和国成立后，采用西方公元纪年。受古代中国影响，朝鲜、日本、越南也先后采用年号制度，日本至今仍在沿用。 This term refers to the name of a period given by the ruling emperor to indicate and record the years of his period of rule in ancient China. When a new emperor ascended the throne, he would replace the reign title of his predecessor with a new one so as

miàohào 庙号 Temple Titles of Emperors 古代帝王死后被追加的在庙中被供奉、祭祀时所用的敬称。一般认为起源于商朝。常用“祖”字或“宗”字，如“太祖”“高祖”“太宗”“高宗”等。庙号的选定有着严格的制度规定，如有功者称“祖”，有德者称“宗”，创立基业者称“太”，功勋卓著者称“高”等。和谥号制度一样，庙号制度也是中国传统政治中的重要制度文化。它通过对死者的评价垂范后人。受中国影响，朝鲜、越南也曾实行这项制度。 Temple titles (miaohao 庙号) were accorded to deceased emperors for use at ancestral sacrifices. This practice is believed to have originated in the Shang Dynasty. The last character of such names were customarily zu (祖 progenitor) or zong (宗 ancestor). The temple names were given according to strict rules. Those with

lùnshuō 论说 Writings of Argument and Persuasion 古代文体名称，泛指古代各种论说文体。“论”是就某一理论问题进行深入研讨的文章，“说”指让人接受某一道理、主张的口头或书面说辞。南朝刘勰（465？—520）主张，论说文不要依傍前人成说立论，而应有自己的独立见解，须围绕一种理论、一个主题，依据经典和相关材料，综合概括各家见解，周密、深入地思考分析，得出严谨可靠、圆满通达的结论。而对于以说服人为目的的说辞，则要充满诚意，阐明正理和大义，要善于运用典型事例和美好言辞，增强其说服力与感染力，但不能虚假迎合、欺骗诱导。他还指出，论说者要以独立思考去抵达真理，做到师法自心、有创见，笔锋锐利，持论精密。这些见解成为衡量文章优劣的基本标准和文章写作的重要法则。 This term refers to writings of argument and persuasion in ancient times. An essay of argument and persuasion was written to explore a theoretical issue in an in-depth way (lun) and make an argument about it to persuade people (shuo). According to Liu Xie (465?-520) of the

lúnlǐ 伦理 Ethics 本义指事物的条理，引申指人伦道德之理，即人与人之间的关系以及处理这些关系的基本道理、原则和规范。中国人自古注重人与人之间关系的处理，儒家认为人伦规范是人之所以为人的主要根据，因而伦理思想十分发达。此为中华传统思想文化一大特点。近代以降，“伦理”被确定为ethics的译词，事物条理之义隐去，专指人和人相处的各种道德准则。 Originally, the term referred to the natural order of things. Gradually its meaning was transformed into ethical principles, i.e., relationships between human beings, and fundamental rules, principles and norms regulating such relationships. Since ancient times, the Chinese people have continuously valued highly proper relationships between people. The Confucian School believed that

lí 离 Li (The Fire Symbol) “八卦”之一，画为“”。“离”又为“六十四卦”之一，由两个三画的“离”卦组成，画为“”。在“八卦”系统中，“离”卦的基本象征意义是火，有干燥万物之义。又因火必附着于物而可燃烧，而有附着之义。“离”卦由一个阴爻和两个阳爻组成，属于阴卦，在人伦领域象征女性。“离”卦中的阴爻居于中位，故象征家中诸女中居长幼之间者。 Li (离) is one of the eight trigrams, represented by the diagram . It is also one of the 64 hexagrams and composed of two trigrams like this . Li symbolizes fire, which implies drying up all things. Since fire depends on combustible material to spread, it implies a relationship of

kǎn 坎 Kan (The Water Symbol) “八卦”之一，画为“”。“坎”又为“六十四卦”之一，由两个三画的“坎”卦组成，画为“”。在“八卦”系统中，“坎”卦的基本象征意义是水，有润泽万物之义。又因水流存于洼陷之处，而有陷泥、凶险之义。“坎”卦由一个阳爻和两个阴爻组成，属于阳卦，在人伦领域象征男性。“坎”卦中的阳爻居于中位，故象征家中诸子中居长幼之间者。 Kan (坎) is one of the eight trigrams, represented by the diagram . It is also one of the 64 hexagrams and composed of two trigrams like this . Kan symbolizes water, which moistens all things on earth. Since water always flows toward or deposits in a lower place, it also

jùnxiàn 郡县 Prefectures and Counties 春秋末年至秦代逐渐形成的以郡统县的两级地方行政制度。春秋战国时期，就有一些诸侯国在新兼并的地区设置郡或县，当时郡县之间并无统属关系。秦始皇（前259—前210）统一中国后，废除了与宗法制互为表里的封建制（也称分封制），在全国范围内实行从中央到地方垂直管理的郡县制：中央统郡，郡统县；郡县的主要官员由中央直接任免；郡之长官称“守”（汉景帝更名为“太守”），县之长官称“令”或“长”。汉初实行封建制与郡县制并行，其后郡县成为常制，后来的州县制实由郡县制脱胎而来。这种行政制度强化了专制帝制，是中央集权体制的有机组成部分。 The two-tier local government administration of prefectures and counties took shape between the late Spring and Autumn Period and the early Qin Dynasty. Back in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, some kingdoms established county or prefectural administration in newly annexed areas, but the two were separate