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jùnxiàn 郡县 Prefectures and Counties 春秋末年至秦代逐渐形成的以郡统县的两级地方行政制度。春秋战国时期，就有一些诸侯国在新兼并的地区设置郡或县，当时郡县之间并无统属关系。秦始皇（前259—前210）统一中国后，废除了与宗法制互为表里的封建制（也称分封制），在全国范围内实行从中央到地方垂直管理的郡县制：中央统郡，郡统县；郡县的主要官员由中央直接任免；郡之长官称“守”（汉景帝更名为“太守”），县之长官称“令”或“长”。汉初实行封建制与郡县制并行，其后郡县成为常制，后来的州县制实由郡县制脱胎而来。这种行政制度强化了专制帝制，是中央集权体制的有机组成部分。 The two-tier local government administration of prefectures and counties took shape between the late Spring and Autumn Period and the early Qin Dynasty. Back in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, some kingdoms established county or prefectural administration in newly annexed areas, but the two were separate […]

jūnzǐ-bùqì 君子不器 A Gentleman Is Not an Implement. 君子不能像某种器物一样，只限于特定的形态和功能。出自《论语·为政》。孔子（前551—前479）原话有两层含义：其一，每种器物都有自己特定的形态和功用，但君子的目标不能囿于具体的器物形态或仅限于某一方面的功用，而是通达其基本原理，尽可能成为通才；其二，君子不能满足于制作器物这样的一技之长，而是致力于事物基本规律的探究也即超越有形的器物而去把握无形的“道”。后世学者主要发挥后一含义。“君子不器”在当今仍有普适意义，即君子不应拘于本职事务的处理，而应有全局观念，致力于对基本原则和普遍规律的体认与遵循。 A true gentleman is not like an implement that has a fixed form and its operation subject to its properties. This term originates from The Analects by Confucius (551-479 BC). What Confucius meant was: first, an implement has its fixed form and properties. However, a gentleman’s

jìngtǔ 净土 Sukhāvatīvyūha / Pure Land 诸佛所居处的远离烦恼的地方。净土的概念从“佛国”（buddhakṣetra）而来，指某一成道者所在的世界。一佛一化土，是大乘佛教思想的重要标志。由于佛心清净，他所处的世界亦清净庄严，与凡夫所处的被烦恼染污的世界相对。净土宗的重要法门是通过念诵净土中的某一佛陀名号，如“阿弥陀佛”，然后通过后者的誓愿而得往生其国。 Pure land refers to a buddha’s field free of contamination and suffering. The idea derives from the notion of buddhakṣetra (literally buddha-field), which is the dwelling place of an Enlightened One. That the multiple worlds each shelters a buddha is a key doctrine in Mahayana Buddhism. Such a pure and

jīngxué 经学 Classics Scholarship 研究儒家经典的学问。“经学”也称“六艺之学”，是围绕《诗》《书》《礼》《乐》《易》《春秋》等儒家经典展开的学问，包含对经典的训诂注疏、义理阐释以及对文本传承、学派源流等问题的讨论。“经学”的核心是通过对经典义理的不断阐释，表达阐释者对生活世界的秩序与价值的根本理解。 It refers to the study of Confucian classics. Classics scholarship is also called “studies of the six arts,” namely, the scholarship on The Book of Songs, The Book of History, The Book of Rites, The Book of Music, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals, encompassing annotations

jiànyì-yǒngwéi 见义勇为 Act Bravely for a Just Cause 遇见合乎道义的事情，就勇敢地去做。它是坚持道义和勇于担当的奉献精神的有机统一，是中华民族自古崇尚的优良品格和行为。如今，见义勇为受到法律保护，依相关条例规定，它是指公民为保护国家利益、社会公共利益或者他人的人身财产安全，不顾个人安危，挺身而出，同正在实施的违法犯罪行为作斗争，或者抢险、救灾、救人的行为。无论古今，见义勇为都是一种良好的社会道德风尚，是社会文明进步的重要标志。 This term refers to a person acting courageously to do what is righteous. This fine tradition hailed by the Chinese nation since ancient times establishes that a man should be committed to upholding justice and shouldering social responsibility. Today, such acts are protected by law. Some

jiǎn 俭 Thriftiness 俭朴，古人倡导的一种美德。在不同学派的思想中，“俭”的含义会有所区别。在儒家看来，“俭”是对奢侈浪费的克服。儒家认为，行礼、行事应避免奢侈。奢侈会带来对物质财富的浪费，同时也会使人们竞逐于物质的富足，从而丧失行礼、行事的初衷与本质。在道家看来，“俭”特指统治者的俭朴。统治者不应为了满足自己的欲求而耗费民财，应以俭朴的行事避免对百姓生活的干扰。 Thriftiness is a virtue espoused by ancient Chinese. However, its meaning varies somewhat among different schools of thought. According to the Confucian school, thriftiness meant rejecting extravagance and waste. One should practice no extravagance in holding a ceremony or in daily life. Extravagance causes waste of things. Moreover, it would lead

jiǎmíng 假名 Prajñapti / Designation 赋予虚妄现象的名称。佛教的一些派别主张，事物不实在，但之所以呈现出种种差别，是因为对它们进行概念指称后，将名称所指误当作真实存在的对象。而事实上，一切事物由各种条件和合而成，在概念思维的观察作用下才得其名称，其名并无实可当，故谓假名。 “Designation” is the provisional naming that refers to things that lack any intrinsic nature. In Buddhism, some schools argue that nothing in the universe exists. The reason why things appear to be different from each other is that as soon as they are designated by different names, what the names

jìlǐ 祭礼 Sacrificial Ceremony 祭祀之礼，是人伦生活中的一项重要礼仪。依据古礼的规定，祭祀的对象包括天地、日月、山川以及逝去的先人等。人们通过“祭礼”表达对受祭对象的敬重或畏惧，并希望受祭对象认可自身的言行，从而获得其护佑并享有其赐予的福禄。“祭礼”对祭祀者及相应仪节的规定，也彰显着祭祀者在人伦生活中的身份与地位。当代社会仍然保留着一些祭祀活动，但其仪式与意义都发生了显著的变化。 The sacrificial ceremony is one of the major rituals in the life of the Chinese. In ancient times, sacrificial ceremonies were held to show reverence for heaven, earth, the sun, the moon, mountains, rivers, or ancestors. By holding a sacrificial ceremony for such things or ancestors, people showed their respect

huǎnghū 恍惚 Intangible Existence 若有若无，难以捉摸。又作“惚恍”。在《老子》书中，“恍惚”被用以描述“道”的状态。老子认为，“道”是无形的，不能用任何有形事物的属性加以描述。同时，“道”又不是完全的虚空，“道”对于万物发挥着实在的影响。“道”所具有的这样一种若有若无的状态即是“恍惚”。 The term refers to a state of existence which is hard to see and ascertain. It is used in Laozi to describe the existential characteristics of Dao. According to Laozi, Dao is shapeless, nebulous, and beyond characterization by anything physical or material. At the same time, it is not completely void,

huángdì 皇帝 Emperor 中国帝制时代最高统治者之称号。源于上古传说中的“三皇五帝”。“三皇”说法很多，或说伏羲氏、神农氏、燧人氏，或说伏羲氏、神农氏、女娲；“五帝”通常指黄帝、颛顼（zhuānxū）、帝喾（kù）、唐尧、虞舜。其实他们只是远古部落或部落联盟的首领，只是因为他们都有超凡的功绩（如伏羲教人渔猎，创制八卦）而被尊称为“皇”或“帝”（从字源上说，“皇”有美大之义，“帝”有明察精审之义）。秦王嬴政（前259—前210）统一中国后，认为自己的功德超过了三皇五帝，于是创“皇帝”称号，自称“始皇帝”。从此，“皇帝”一词成为传统中国最高统治者的称呼。 The supreme ruler of imperial China was called huangdi, meaning “emperor.” The origin of this word is a legend of ancient sovereigns known as the three huang (皇 sovereigns) and five di (帝 emperors). It is said that the three huang were Fuxi, Shennong and Suiren, while others identify them as Fuxi, Shennong and