Chinese Thought and Culture

shìhào 谥号 Posthumous Title 追加给死者的称号。追加的对象通常是皇帝、贵族、大臣、杰出官员等政治、社会地位高的人。追加的称号高度概括死者一生的是非功过，大体分为褒扬性的“美谥”、贬斥性的“恶谥”、同情性的“平谥”三种。这是中国传统政治中的重要制度文化。它通过对死者的评价对后人发挥导向作用，以利于政治、社会秩序的维持。 Posthumous titles were often conferred upon emperors, nobles, ministers, and other prominent officials with a high political and social status. The titles were intended to serve as a summation of the life of their holders. They mostly came in three forms: commendatory, derogatory, or sympathetic. They were an important part […]

shì rén rú jǐ 视人如己 Treat Others the Way You Treat Yourself 像对待自己一样对待他人。中国自古，无论哪一个思想流派，都不背离“爱”的基本原则，都认为人与人之间，不论亲疏贵贱，皆须保有基本的善意或同情。它不仅是处理人与人关系的重要原则，也可引申为反对暴力、强权的国际原则。与孔子（前551—前479）的“恕道”（推己及人的原则）一样，其基本精神是仁爱、平等与宽容。 Since ancient times in China, every school of thought has regarded love a core value. They all maintain that people must have general goodwill or sympathy for others, whether they know each other well or not, rich or poor. This is not

shízhōng 时中 Follow the Golden Mean 随时而符合中庸之道。“时中”一说出自《礼记·中庸》。儒家以“中庸”作为行事的最高准则，强调处事应无过、无不及。但无过、无不及的标准，并不是固定不变的教条，而是随时变化的。人们需要在每一个具体的生活处境中，思考道德、礼法的要求，时时、处处践行“中庸”的准则，也即“时中”的要求。 This term, which originated from The Book of Rites, means that one should at all times follow the principle of the “golden mean.” Confucian scholars regarded the mean as the supreme principle guiding people’s behavior. They stressed that when handling things one should not act excessively or insufficiently.

shèngrén 圣人 Sage 具有圣德之人。“圣人”是古人所推崇的最高人格。“圣人”基于对天道、人心的把握，可以制定、规范人伦生活的秩序与法则，其所言所行成为人伦世界的至高典范。不过，不同学派对于“圣人”之德的具体内涵会有不同的理解。儒家所言“圣人”，能够完美地践行仁义等道德并对世人施以道德教化。而道家所言“圣人”，则要求以“无为”的方式，顺应百姓自然的状态，激发百姓的自主性。 It refers to a person of consummate virtue. Sages were regarded by the ancient Chinese as having the highest level of character and integrity. They knew the Way of Heaven and the hearts of people, and could thus make rules and regulate human ethics. With their exemplary statements and behavior, they

shēnglü声律 Tonal and Rhythmical Patterns 指诗文中将汉语的声、韵、调互相配合以形成音韵美的一般法则。南朝齐梁时的文士周颙（yóng）将汉语的自然发音区分为平声、上声、去声、入声，沈约（441—513）在此基础上提出声调高低互相调节、平声和仄声前后配合的诗歌创作规则，以及在声调、声母、韵母搭配上存在的八种弊病。刘勰（465？—520）《文心雕龙》指出，诗歌上下文以声调的飞扬与沉降（相当于平声和仄声）相配产生节奏美，以韵母相同的字收尾押韵产生呼应美。刘勰将音韵和谐协调的要求推及一切文章，既是为了利于传播和接受，也表明对诵读美本身的重视，反映了南朝文人对形式美的追求，启示唐人写出工整优美的律诗。早期的声律理论多借助于音乐概念，后来发展为专门的汉语音韵学。 This term refers to rules and practices which create tonal and rhythmical beauty in prose and verse by blending sounds, rhythms and tones together. Zhou Yong, a scholar of the Qi and Liang periods of the Southern Dynasties, divided the intonation of the Chinese language into four tones: the

shèn zhōng zhuī yuǎn 慎终追远 Mourn the Deceased and Memorialize Those Long Gone 慎重地对待丧事、追念逝去的先人。曾子主张以“慎终追远”的态度对待逝者。随着逝者的远去，人们容易逐渐淡忘其存在及其对自己的关爱与影响。“慎终”即要求人们慎重地遵行丧礼的仪节，表达对逝者的真挚哀悼。“追远”则要求人们依礼祭祀逝者，以缅怀其恩情及其德行、功业。曾子认为，“慎终追远”的做法有助于敦厚人情。 This term means to hold obsequies in a proper way and cherish the memory of those long deceased. This is what Zengzi believed one should do toward the deceased. As someone passed away, with the passage of time, people close to

shǎngshàn-fá’è 赏善罚恶 Reward Good and Punish Evil 奖赏善人，惩罚恶人。古人认为，国家、社会要治理得好，必须善善恶恶（喜爱善的，憎恶恶的），以弘扬良好的风尚；善恶依法而断，赏罚依法而行。合理合法有功是善，背理违法有罪是恶。赏与罚是治国治军的重要手段，是领导者掌握的重要权柄；赏罚有示范作用——赏为了劝善，罚为了惩恶，所以必须依照规矩，赏罚得当，善恶分明，这样才能形成健康向上的社会风尚。它是诚信精神和善恶观念的有机统一。 Ancient Chinese believe that if the state and society are to be well-governed, what is good must be loved and what is evil must be despised in order to create a positive social environment. Good and evil should be identified and rewards and punishments should be meted

sè 色 Rūpa / Matter 在佛教的语境中，色指一切能使人感知到的东西，包括有形的物质和仅有形式而无形状的东西。色初指有形的东西，是视觉器官的认知对象。色又与“名”相对，并在十二缘起当中与其合称（“名色”），指生命个体在一次轮回当中所具备的精神和物质的总合。通常意义上，“色”可以指任何可感、有质碍、由极微构成而会坏灭的物质。但在某些语境中，佛教又使用“无表色”等概念，以区别于可见的物质，指具备形式、效用但不可言状的东西。 In Buddhist terminology rūpa refers to perceivable things, comprising materiality and forms. Rūpa originally indicates things with a shape, objects recognized by the organ of sight. Rūpa further forms a pair with ming (名nāman), or name, listed among the twelve links of dependent origination in the combination mingse (名色 nāmarūpa), name-and-form, indicating the totality

sānglǐ 丧礼 Mourning Rites 送葬、哀悼死者之礼，是人伦生活中的一项重要礼仪。古代“丧礼”依据逝者与行礼之人的关系，对丧期、服饰以及具体的行礼仪节都做出了详细规定。人们通过“丧礼”表达对逝者的哀痛与缅怀。同时，“丧礼”也对人情的表达做出节制，以避免哀痛过度而毁伤身体。此外，“丧礼”对行礼之人的身份及其相应仪节的区分，体现着古人对人伦关系的理解与规范。在当代社会，由于生活方式的改变，“丧礼”的形式及其所体现的人伦关系都发生了不同程度的变化。 To hold a funeral and mourn one who has passed away is an important ritual in the lives of the Chinese. In ancient China, there were detailed rules for such rites, based on the relations between the mourner and the deceased, such as the length of mourning, dress code, and

sānjiè 三界 Traidhātuka / Three Realms of Existence 佛教将众生所在的世界分为欲界、色界、无色界三种，合称“三界”。欲界中的众生，受到感官欲望的驱使而活动；色界中的众生远离了食欲、淫欲，但仍受到形式概念的束缚；无色界中的众生，能脱离一切名称概念而活动。凡三界众生都因作业受业而处于轮回之中，故谓三界苦轮。“三界”一方面是佛教的宇宙观，另一方面体现了佛教禅修世界的不同境地。 In Buddhism, the universe of sentient beings is composed of three realms: (1) the realm of desire (kāmadhātu), where the mind is motivated by sensual pleasures; (2) the realm of subtle forms (rūpadhātu), where the mind becomes uninterested in sensual objects but still engaged in conceptual mental