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dū 都 Metropolis 国都，国君处理政事及所居的城邑。“都”与“邑”的区别是：有宗庙（陈列祖先和前代君主牌位）的城叫做“都”；没有宗庙的叫做“邑”。宗庙是大夫以上贵族统治者祭祀祖先的庙宇，是祖先崇拜的产物、宗法制度的体现，也是“都”的根本标志。周朝时，各诸侯国的政治中心都叫做“都”；秦汉以后，统指国都、帝王的治所。后规模大、人口多的城邑都可称为“都”。 The term refers to the city in which a state ruler resided and conducted government affairs. The difference between a du (都) and a yi (邑) was that the former had an ancestral temple to enshrine the memorial tablets of ancestors and previous rulers while the latter did not. An ancestral temple used […]

dào fǎ zìrán 道法自然 Dao Operates Naturally. “道”效法、顺应万物的自然状态。这一命题出自《老子》。“自然”指事物自主、自在的状态。“道”创造、生养万物，但“道”不会对万物发号施令，而是效法、顺应万物之“自然”。“道”与万物的关系，在政治哲学中表现为统治者与百姓的关系。统治者应遵循“道”的要求，节制自己的权力，以无为的方式效法、顺应百姓的自然状态。 Dao operates in accordance with natural conditions of all things. This idea first appeared in the book Laozi, according to which “natural” means the natural state of things. Dao creates and nurtures everything, yet it does not command anything. In political philosophy, the relationship between Dao and

cídá 辞达 Expressiveness 说话、写文章要能简明扼要地表达内心的意思。孔子反对过度追求辞藻华丽，强调文辞只要能确切而简洁地传达出思想感情即可，并倡导“文质彬彬”的审美观念。这一术语后来经过刘勰、韩愈、苏轼等人不断继承与发展，形成了中国文学追求语言自然凝练、反对过分雕琢的美学旨趣与风格。 The term means to put forth one’s thoughts in a clear and concise way when speaking and writing. Confucius opposed excessive efforts in pursuit of extravagant writing styles. He stressed that writings need only to express one’s ideas and feelings clearly and precisely, and he advocated a concept of aesthetics that

chúnwánɡ-chǐhán 唇亡齿寒 Once the Lips Are Gone, the Teeth Will Feel Cold. 嘴唇没有了，牙齿就会感到寒冷。比喻相互间关系密切，相互依存，有共同的利害关系。据《左传·僖公五年》载，晋国向虞国借道，以便攻打虞国的邻国虢国。虞国的大夫宫之奇向国君进谏说：虢是虞的屏障，虢亡，虞必随之而亡，虞和虢是唇亡齿寒的关系。这实际反映华夏民族自古以来重视邻国关系和与邻友善、务实的地缘政治思想。 When two things are interdependent, the fall of one will endanger the other. According to the early chronicle Zuo’s Commentary on The Spring and Autumn Annals, when the State of Jin wanted to march through the State of Yu in order to

chǔcí 楚辞 Chuci (Ode of Chu) 楚辞是由屈原创作的一种诗体，后来又成为代表中国古代南方文化的第一部诗歌总集，楚辞运用楚地（今湖南、湖北一带）的文学体式、方言声韵，叙写楚地的山川人物、历史风情，具有浓厚的地域特色，因而得名。“楚辞”之名，西汉初期已有之，后刘向辑录成集，收战国时期楚国人屈原、宋玉以及汉代淮南小山、东方朔、严忌、王褒、刘向等人作品共16篇，后来王逸作《楚辞章句》时增加了自己的一篇，共17篇。楚辞通过独特的文体与文化内涵，反映出南方楚国文化的特点，抒情色彩浓厚，想象丰富，保存了上古许多神话故事，彰显出不同于《诗经》传统的一种全新的文学精神与文学体式，成为与《诗经》并驾齐驱的文学形态，后世称这种文体为“楚辞体”或“骚体”，称研究《楚辞》的学问为“楚辞学”。 Chuci (楚辞) was a poetic genre first attributed to Qu Yuan. It later became the title for the first anthology of poetry depicting the culture in south China. Chuci was so named because it made use of Chu (now Hunan and Hubei provinces) dialect, accent, and local special

chénɡ 城 Fortress / City 四周由城墙环绕的城邑。“城”本指城墙、城郭，是筑土而成的、具有军事防御及防洪功能的设施，城外一般挖有护城河。古代王朝国都、诸侯封地、卿及大夫的封邑，都以筑有城墙的聚落为中心，所以称为“城”。“城”音“盛（chénɡ）”，意思是“容纳民众”。其根本功能为保护民众，是“民惟邦本”这一政治理念的具体体现。 Cheng (城) is a city with walls surrounding it. The Chinese character for cheng originally referred to inner and outer city walls built of earth, with military defense and flood control functions. Usually, it was surrounded by a moat. In ancient times, the state capital of a monarch, the fief of

biéjí 别集 Individual Collection 汇集某一作家个人诗文作品的集子（与汇集多人诗文作品的“总集”相对）。西汉刘歆《七略》有“诗赋略”，录有屈原、唐勒、宋玉等66家的作品，皆以作家为单位，是图书“别集”之始。东汉以后别集渐繁，两汉魏晋南北朝别集见于《隋书·经籍志》的就有886部，历代文人学者几乎人人有集。只收诗作的称为诗集，单收文或诗文并收的称为文集。别集常以作家姓名、字号、谥号、籍贯、居住地等命名。别集保存了某一作家的全部传世作品，是作家心灵世界的真实展示，也是后人认识和研究作家思想与文学成就的主要材料。 The term refers to a collection of works by an individual author, in contrast to an anthology which amalgamates the works of many writers. In the Western Han Dynasty, Liu Xin composed Seven Categories, one of the categories being “The Catalogue of Shi and Fu,” which collects the literary works of

biàntǐ 辨体 Style Differentiation 辨明文学作品的体式与风格。指创作时根据所要表达的思想感情选择合适的文学体式与风格，从而创作出内容与形式高度和谐一致的优秀作品。古代的文学家在从事文学创作时往往首先考虑文章的体式。魏晋南北朝时的文学批评家们详尽探讨了各种文体的艺术特征和艺术规律，强调创作者应根据思想感情表达的需要选择相应的文体进行写作，并应严格遵守所选文体的创作风格、语言形式与表达技巧，这样才能写出优秀的作品。与之相对的是“破体”，指打破各类文章体式与风格的界限，使之相互融合。“辨体”有时也指辨别与追求高尚的文学品格与境界。 The term refers to the differentiation of the form and style of a literary work. It means that before putting words on paper, one needs to decide on the form and style appropriate to the thoughts and feelings to be expressed so as to produce a fine literary work with

bǐdé 比德 Virtue Comparison 用自然物包括动植物的某些特性比附人的道德品格。引申到文学审美领域，一般是用美好的事物直接比喻高尚的人格精神，将自然现象看作是人的某些精神品质的表现和象征，体现出儒家将审美与文艺道德化的思维模式。人比德于自然，意味着对自然的欣赏其实就是对人自身特别是人所具有的伦理品格的欣赏。后成为修辞与诗歌创作的一种方式。 The term means likening certain characteristics of things in nature, including plants and animals, to human virtues. When extended to the domain of literary appreciation, it generally involves likening desirable objects to a noble personality. To perceive a natural phenomenon as a reflection or symbol of human characteristics is typical